Imran Awan, Professor of Criminology at Birmingham City University explores issues of misogyny, racism and Islamophobia in female football, relating to his current research focus on hate crime in football.
Written by Professor Imran Awan and Dr Irene Zempi
The recent comments made from former professional football player Joey Barton and data from Kick It out, has sparked a heated debate about misogyny in football. In Barton’s explicit rant on X (formerly Twitter) he said: “Women shouldn’t be talking with any kind of authority in the men’s game. Come on. Let’s be serious” because in his words: “It’s a completely different game.”
auto=format&fm=jpg" />Joey Barton also stated that men who listen to women's commentary on men's football games "need their heads testing". Such comments illustrate the systemic misogyny that exists in football and sports more generally. The sexist and derogatory comments made by Joey Barton about women did not occur in a vacuum. Rather, misogyny is prevalent across all social media yet it remains unchecked, whilst misogynistic online communities have increased in the last decade. A study led by the University of Chester Business School has shed light on gender-based violence against female players on TikTok Premier League platforms. The study found four themes: sexism - Belittling players' skills and mocking fact that women play football professionally; Misogyny - Aggressive comments showing hatred and animosity towards the women; Sexualisation of women - diminishing them to mere sex symbols and objects of desire, and demand for male-only space - not seeing the women’s teams as part of their club.
The social media movement #HerGameToo released the results of a survey that reveals some of the shocking abuse females have had to put up with. Of a survey of 371 women, 91.9% have seen sexist online abuse towards a woman in football, 63.1% have experienced sexist online abuse themselves because of football and 58.4% have experienced abuse in real life at a football ground or in a pub while watching football.
Here are some of participants’ responses:
"Quite often it’s the same insult - “What do you know you’re a girl?”, “Go cook something?”, “Isn’t there some cleaning to do somewhere?”’
I’ve been told a number of times that I can’t support Manchester United just because I’m a woman and “I know nothing about the game and should just get back in the kitchen”’
Online is the worst though. I've had death and rape threats purely for sharing my opinions on football - ranging from anonymous football Twitter accounts from young lads to older men with their names in their profiles. I've been told all the usual stuff - "you only watch football for male attention", "you don't know the offside rule", "get back in the kitchen."
Furthermore, a 2020 survey by the organisation Women In Football, found that two thirds (66%) of women have experienced gender discrimination in the footballing workplace, with 34% witnessing but only 12% of incidents were reported. Furthermore, the survey indicated that when problems were reported, they were “brushed under the carpet” with the mis-used term “banter” the most common form of discrimination. Some 52% of respondents have experienced or witnessed this and a further 82% said they have faced obstacles in their football career.
Considering this, it is important to recognise that women’s experiences in football are highly racialised and gendered because of the complexities of intersectionalities that female football players face every day. In our recent research report we found the Muslim female football players experience, ‘multiple racisms’ rather a singular racism. For example, Muslim women who wore the hijab (headscarf) reported experiencing ‘triple penalty’ of Islamophobia, racism and misogyny. Furthermore, participants reported experiencing discrimination from the management in terms of career development, progression and retention. When they spoke up, participants were accused of playing the ‘race card’.
Barton may not realise, but football is perceived as a ‘white experience’ and football stadia remain overwhelmingly white male spaces. Instead of comments that fuel misogyny and hate, Barton should focus on the research which shows that Black and Asian players experience barriers to participation in football. ‘Taking the knee’, a powerful social and political gesture signalling resistance against racism in sports and wider society has become an enduring feature of sports since 2020. Taking the knee draws attention to racial injustice and shows solidarity with the Black Lives Matter (BLM) movement. Yet, there has been ongoing controversy over fans booing players who take the knee as a gesture against racism and/or solidarity with the BLM movement.
Barton’s comments demonstrate that both misogyny and hate are intersectional, yet it is normalised and understood as ‘part of the game’. In our research we found racialization, which is manifested through racial projects and racial stacking. Stacking refers to the process of consciously or unconsciously applying racially motivated stereotypes to individuals/groups, and making decisions based on their perceived abilities; these stereotypes ‘stack’ athletes of colour within certain positions. Along similar lines, ‘racial projects’ occur in sports such as coach ideologies about physicality and intellectual abilities. Such stereotypes promote biological differences and racialized binaries, and influence resource allocations. There are many examples of ‘racial projects’ whereby resources are organised and allocated according to racial lines, yet in seemingly ‘natural’ ways. Our females participants noted how they experienced Islamophobia, racism and misogyny from opposition fans/players because of the visibility of their Muslim identity coupled with their gender.
“There are some racist individuals. Some hit us quite hard, and they don’t shake hands with us. Sometimes they make Islamophobic comments. They have an attitude problem towards Muslim women in football.”
Female participants also discussed how they were treated differently from managers and players because they wore the hijab. Female participants described how they faced certain barriers regarding wearing the hijab. In some cases, the league made it difficult for them to wear the hijab. For both Muslim men and women, these experiences forced them to change their appearance by downplaying the visibility of their Muslim identity.
“If you wear a hijab you’re told by the league that you’re only allowed to wear it in a certain way and make sure it doesn’t get in the way while you’re playing.”
In this way, Barton’s comments on social media act as an amplifying echo chamber for such hateful and misogynistic views. It reinforces the idea for some people to see football and the internet as a place where it is acceptable to post comments with sexist language, often with the caveat that they are not misogynistic, but simply expressing their opinion. As we discuss in our latest book: “Hate Crime in Football” these comments on social media can also reflect wider attitudes that are endemic in the ‘real’ offline world.
Professor Imran Awan is Professor of Criminology at Birmingham City University and Dr Irene Zempi is Associate Professor of Criminology at Nottingham Trent University.